Generally, the major sources of urban air pollution to individual health are particulate matter (PM) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) through emission from vehicle exhaust (Ghaffarpasand et al., 2020). In 2016, on-road vehicles accounted for about 39% and 20% of total NOx and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions in the European Union (EU), and it is found those passenger vehicles are the major cause of NOx and CO emissions from road transportation (EEA, 2018). Meanwhile, motor vehicles using diesel fuel have been identified as a major contributor to high NOx emissions in Europe (Anttila et al., 2011; Henschel et al., 2015) beside CO and total hydrocarbons (THC) (Yang et al., 2020).
Bmw Road Map Southeast Asia Next 2016 1
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